Development of Sediment Reference Sample for Toxicity Tests

Development of Sediment Reference Sample for Toxicity Tests Development of sediment reference sample for toxicity testing using Microtox Solid Phase test and Metal Fractionation using single extractions Abstract Chemical characterisation of pollutants using fractionation techniques and bioassays are useful monitoring tools for sediment quality assessment. However, a common criticism of sediment bioassays is the lack of an appropriate reference sediment sample which sample sediment toxicity can be comparatively assessed. In this study an approach of obtaining a reference sediment sample by cleaning the sediment samples with metals was tested. Metal fractionation was carried out by applying single extraction techniques modified from a sequential extraction scheme proposed by Tessier et al (1979). The total metal concentrations were characterised using nitric acid digestion. The sediment samples before and after the extractions were analysed using the Microtox Solid Phase Test (SPT). Comparison of total metal concentration with various sediment quality guidelines suggests that the sediments are polluted due to higher concentrations of Cu , Ni , Pb , Cd and Zn. The fractionation studies reveal t hat metals are contained mainly within Fe-Mn Oxide phase.The comparison of the results of the SPT with various sediment classification methods suggests that the sediments are moderately toxic to non toxic. However, the results of changes in the toxicity of sediment residues obtained after each extraction compared to unprocessed sediment toxicity results are not statistically significant. But the comparison of toxicity results of sediment residues obtained after HNO3 and NaOAc digestion with the toxicity value of replicate1 of unprocessed sediment suggests a marginal decrease in the toxicity of sediments while the comparison of toxicity values of MgCl2 , NH2OH.HCl, HNO3+H2O2 indicates an increase in the toxicity of sediment residued. The comparison of toxicity values of all sediment residues with that of replicate2 of unprocessed sediment indicates an increase in the toxicity of the sediments after extractions. Get wisdom, get understanding. Wisdom is supreme; therefore get wisdom. Though it costs all you have, get understanding (Proverbs 4: 5,7). Then you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free (John 8: 32). CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background: With the growing interest in the rules that govern the fate of pollutants in urban environments, the sediments of urban rivers pose a particularly challenging scientific problem as many persistent contaminants (e.g. metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs)) tend to concentrate in river bed sediments. Therefore, the assessment of sediment quality is recognised as a critical step in understanding the risks associated with man made pollution in the riverine system (De Miguel et al , 2005). Depending upon the conditions in the river, pollutants bound to sediment may become bioavailable and impose toxicity on aquatic organisms. Chemical analysis alone is not adequate to explain effects of chemicals present in the sediment (Beg and Ali, 2008) as they do not prove that adverse effects are occurring (Luoma et al , 1995) , thus for optimal characterization and assessment of pollution , issues concerning both concentration and toxicity should be addressed (Mowat et al , 2001). Therefore, because of the need to establish a cause -effect relationship between the concentration of pollutants and consequent environmental damage and to measure the possible synergistic effect of complex mixture of chemicals(Girotti et al , 2008), Microbial toxicity tests based on bacteria have been widely used in environmental toxicity screening due to the similarity of complex biochemical function in bacteria and higher organisms (Mowat et al , 2001) .Among the bioassays solid phase tests are useful and widely used as test organisms are exposed to whole sediments which include water soluble and non polar substances and thus offer a high relative realism for toxicity assessment of sediments. However, sediment toxicity tests require reference sediment exclusive of contaminant with similar physico chemical characteristics as the test sediments (Guzzella , 1998). The microtox test based on bacterial bioluminescence which uses V. Fischeri bacteria as test organism represent one of the most suitable test for sediment toxicity assessment as it can be used on extracts as well as directly to the sediment (solid phase test) ( Calace et al , 2005). As it is now widely recognised that the total concentrations of Heavy Metals indicate the extent of contamination, but they provide little information about the forms in which Heavy Metals are present, or about their potential for mobility and bioavailability in the environment (Lake et al , 1987) , knowledge on metal speciation in the sedimentary environment may be of more importance for hazard assessment than the total metal concentrations( Farkas et al , 2007). For this reason, sequential extraction procedures are commonly applied because they provide information about the fractionation of metals in the different lattices of the sediments and other solid samples (Margui et al , 2004). It is against this background that an investigation into establishing a reference sediment sample for solid phase bioassays was undertaken in relation to Microtox solid phase test utilising single extractions of metal fractions using -same conditions and procedures described in the sequential extraction procedure mentioned in Tessier et al 1979 . Aims and Objectives: The main aim of the study is to assess whether the approach of cleaning the sediment with metals using single extraction steps of sequential extraction is an appropriate alternative to develop a sediment reference sample or not. In order to obtain a reference sample exclusive of metals, the following procedure was adopted: Each extraction step described in the Tessier scheme was applied to separate aliquots of sediment samples using the same extraction conditions and chemicals described in the scheme (see section 3.8 for details). After the extraction step washed and dried residue sediment samples were analysed for toxicity using the Microtox solid phase test. A reduction in the toxicity could be expected as the metals were removed using chemicals. Microtox solid phase test was also conducted on unprocessed sediment so that a relative comparison between toxicity measurements could be made. The objectives of the investigation are summarised as follows : To characterise the sediments for total bio available metal concentration for eight heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu,Fe,Mn,Zn,Pb,Ni) using nitric acid digestion method. To characterise various fractions of metals as described in the Tessier Scheme using single extraction procedures. To determine the level of toxicity associated with unprocessed and processed sediment sample using the Microtox solid phase test. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Urban River Sediments and Pollution: Urban rivers have been linked with water quality issues since the nineteenth century when it was usual practice to discharge untreated domestic and industrial waste into water courses. Since then the situation has been improved due to e.g. the management curtailment of pollution at sewage treatment plants. However, because of high population densities in urban areas due to variety of sources of pollution the degradation of urban rivers is still important today (Goodwin et al , 2003). When released into the river environment many anthropogenic chemicals bind or adsorb on to particulate matter and depending upon river morphology and hydrological conditions such particulate matter along with associated contaminants can settle out along the water course and become part of the bottom sediments(Vigano et al , 2003). Thus , sediments are considered as repositories for physical and biological debris and for many pollutants (Calmano et al , 1996). Further more , under various physical , biological and chemical conditions (e.g. aqueous solubility ,pH, redox , affinity for sediment organic carbon , grain size of sediments , sediment mineral constituents and quantity of acid volatile sulfides) these contaminants may become bioavailable and result in a toxic impact on aquatic biota(Ingersoll et al , 1995). Nowdays, escalating evidence of environmental degradation have been confirmed where water quality guidelines for contaminants are not surpassed but, still organisms in or near the sediments are adversely affected (Ingersoll et al , 1995). Thus, with a vision to protecting aquatic biota, improving water quality and managing problems of resuspension and the land deposition of dredged materials, sediment quality assessment has been a crucial scientific and legislative issue in recent years. ( Calmano et al 1996 ; Nipper et al 1998). 2.2 Water Framework Directive (WFD) : The European Unions(EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) which came in effect on 22 December 2000, is one of the most important pieces of environmental legislation and is likely to transform the way water quality is being monitored within all member states ( Allan et al , 2006). The main objective of the Directive is to improve, protect and prevent further deterioration of water quality across Europe and it aims to achieve and ensure good quality status of all water bodies throughout Europe by 2015. Thus the necessity of addressing water quality issues associated with urban rivers has been increased within Member States(Goodwin et a, 2003). Under the WFD , three modes of monitoring strategies are specified and at each strategy level chemical monitoring , biological/ecological assessment , physico-chemical and hydro morphological tools have been covered to assess the water quality status of the body(Allan et al,2006). In the WFD, EU commission places emphasis on establishing quality standards related to the concentrations of priority substances and substances which may cause harm in water , sediment or biota . (Crane , 2003). 2.3 Sediment and Pollutants Sources in Urban Rivers : Urban river system is much more complex in its sediments and pollutant sources. Sediments may be released into urban rivers due to erosion of land surface through variety of physical and chemical processes, the rapid run off from impervious surfaces, routing through drainage network, retention tanks and winter gritting roads (Goodwin et al, 2003). These sediments may contain or associated with pollutants such as hydrocarbons , garden and animal wastes , fertilisers , pesticides , oils , detergents , deicing chemicals , street litter (Hall, 1984 ; Chapman, 1996) and trace and heavy metals (Collins et al, 2007). Moreover, Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) events also augment the pollutant and sediment load due to its own contaminant load and the erosion and wash out of in-sewer sediments (Fierros et al , 2002). Due to the wide variety of sources and river dynamics there exist a wide spatial and temporal variation in the properties of sediments. 2.4 River Sediment Composition and dynamics : River sediments are mainly composed of mineral particles originated from the parent rocks due to erosion process, particulate organic matter adsorbed on mineral particles or particle sized organic matter which originates from plant detritus and animal debris, adsorbed nutrients and toxic inorganic and organic pollutants (Chapman , 1996). However , with respect to their behaviour in nature , sediments can be classified in two distinctively different groups a) fine sediments with particles smaller than 50m (i.e silt and clay) and b) coarse sediments with size exceeding 50m ( i.e. sands and gravels) (Salomons et al , 1984). The erosion, transportation and deposition of sediment is a function of river flow velocity, particle size, water content of the material (Chapman , 1996) , channel structure and degree of turbulence(Goodwin et al , 2003). Under certain hydraulic conditions sediments can be transported in suspension or by traction along the bottom which is often called Bed Load. The suspension mechanism initiates the movement of fine particles while the Bed Load causes the movement of coarse particles (Chapman , 1996). More over, within urban catchments rapid runoff and CSO events trigger river flow events with short peak times and high peak flows which step up transport of sediments and associated pollutants (Goodwin et al , 2003). 2.5 Sediment Quality Assessment: Historically, the assessment of sediment quality has often been limited to chemical characterisation. It helps to classify what are the contaminants and what is their concentrations(McCauley et al , 2000) and it provides information about the condition of sediments and processes within them(Wolska et al , 2007). However, quantifying contaminant concentration alone can not provide enough information to evaluate adequately potential adverse effects, possible interaction among chemicals or the time dependent availability of these materials to aquatic organisms ( Ingersoll et al , 1995) because it is impractical to analyze all the compounds and their synergistic/antagonistic effects contributing to toxicity(Plaza et al , 2005). As the bioavailability of pollutants to aquatic biota and their effects on the biota is the key concern in sediment risk assessment , ecotoxicological testing (bioassays) of sediments which study the toxic effects of sediment contaminants on living organisms ( e.g . fish , plants , bacteria , algae) has been extensively used ( Rand et al , 1995). Thus, to understand the fate of pollutants in sediments and their impacts on aquatic biota , a tiered biological and chemical assessment methods have been implemented (Calmano et al , 1996) . The sediment quality triad methodology, one of the most widely used tiered approach based on weight of evidence combines 1) Identification and quantification of contaminants (i.e. chemical analyses ) , 2) Measurement and quantification of Toxicity based on bioassays (toxicity tests) and 3) Evaluation of in situ biological effects(e.g. Benthic community structure) (Calmano et al , 1996 ; McCauley et al , 2000 ). Principal advantages are that it can be used for any sediment type (Calmano et al ,1996) and as both biological and chemical components are used , environmental significance of contaminated sediments is addressed (McCauley et al , 2000). However the cause -effect relations are not always identified due to the synergistic/antagonistic effects of chemicals causing toxicity in sediments (Calmano et al , 1996 ; McCauley et al , 2000) . Furthermore, the assessment is very site specific and does not allow empirical calculations of chemical specific guidelines ( Mc Cauley , 2000). 2.6 Metals in Urban Sediments and Sources : Metals are natural components of biosphere (Luoma , 1983) and they are introduced in to the aquatic environment through many lithogenic and anthropogenic sources(Zhou et al , 2008). Chemical leaching of bedrocks , water drainage basins and run off from banks are considered as the major lithogenic sources of metals (Zhou et al , 2008) while emissions from industrial processes ( e.g. mining , smelting , finishing , plating , paint an dye manufaturing) (Rand et al , 1995) and through urban sewage, house hold effluents, drainage water, business effluents , atmospheric deposition and traffic related emissions transported with storm water (Karvelas et al , 2003) are the major anthropogenic sources of metals in the aquatic environment. Upon discharge to the aquatic environment metals are partitioned between solid and liquid phase (Luoma , 1983) and eventually as a result of settling metals associated with solid phase accumulate in bottom sediments(Farkas et al , 2007).Thus , sediments are m ain sink of metals in aquatic environment(Morillo et al , 2002). A comparison of typical concentration of metals in urban river sediments is presented in the Table 2.1. Table 2.1 : Concentration of metals in urban river sediments(g/g) (reproduced from De Miguel et al , 2005) Cr Cu Fe(%) Mn Ni Pb Zn River Henares, Spain (97-180) (7-270) (0.8-3.16) (150-445) (11-128) (17-1280) River Seine , France 84 2.91 162 429 River Sowe , UK 47.9 164 411 786 Semarang , Indonesia (12.3-448) (5.2-2666) (53.7-1257) Danube River, Austria 43.5 53.9 187 Tiber river , Italy (18.2-54.2) (13.3-45.5) (3.6-33.5) (12.4-43.1) (53.4-417.6) River Po, Italy (118-223) (45.2-179.9) (4.5-5.2) (355-1159) (99-237) (39.3-71.8) (127-519) River Sherbourne 38 71 2.9 481 19 118 196 River Manzanares (18-1260 (11-347) (1.9-9.1) (305-1276) (5-47) (42-371) (70-591) In brackets : minimum- maximum values ; in italic :arithmatic mean values 2.7 Toxic metals and their forms in sediments : Although some metals are essential micronutrients (e.g. Mn, Fe, Cu,Zn) , almost all metals are toxic to aquatic organisms and human health if exposure levels are sufficiently high (Luoma , 1983). Among the toxic metals cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, mercury and arsenic are of prime importance due to their association with anthropogenic inputs. Under different physical, biological or chemical conditions the toxicity of metals in sediments is a matter of bio availability (Jennett et al ,1980). Thus in order to estimate the bio availability of metals and their potential toxicity it is desirable not only to determine the total concentration but also the different chemical forms or ways of binding between metals and sediments(Albores et al , 2000). In sediments depending upon various physical, chemical and biological conditions , metals partitioned into different chemical forms associated with a variety of organic and inorganic phases (Farkas et al , 2007).In river sediments metal can be bound to various compartments e.g. adsorbed onto clay surfaces or iron and manganese oxy hydroxides, present in lattice of secondary minerals such as carbonates, sulphates or oxides, occluded within amorphous material such as iron and manganese oxyhydroxides, complexed with organic matter or lattice of primary minerals such as silicates (Gismera et al , 2004). Due to natural and anthropogenic environmental changes these associations can be altered and metals can become more or less bio available or mobilized within different phases. These influential factors include pH, temperature , redox potential , organic matter decomposition , leaching and ion exchange processes and microbial activity(Filgueiras et al ,2002). Thus in relation to their mobi lity and bioavailability, in order of decreasing interest the major metal fractions are : 1) Exchangeable ,2) Bound to carbonates , 3) Bound to Fe-Mn Oxides , 4) Bound to organic matter and 5) Residual . 2.7.1 Exchangeable Metals : In this fraction , weakly adsorbed metals retained on the solid surface by relatively weak electrostatic forces that can be released by ion exchange processes in the sediment are included(Filgueiras et al , 2002). These metals are considered the most available form of metals present in the sediments (Morrison , 1985). 2.7.2 Metals Bound to Carbonates : Metals in this fractions are co-precipitated with carbonates which exist as cement and coating (Morrison , 1985) and this phase can be an important adsorbent for metals in the absence of organic matter and Fe-Mn oxides (Filgueiras et al , 2002). 2.7.3 Metals bound to Fe-Mn Oxides : Metals in this fraction are associated with Iron and Manganese oxides which exist as nodules , concretion and cement between particles or simply as a coating on particles. Iron and Manganese oxides are considered as excellent scavengers of metals and are thermodynamically unstable under anoxic conditions (Tessier et al , 1979). 2.7.4 Metals bound to organic matter : In this fractions metals associated with various forms of organic materials such as living organisms, plant and animal detritus or coatings on mineral particles are included. This fraction is considered to be less mobile due to their associations with humic substances of higher molecular weights(Filgueiras et al , 2002). 2.8 Sequential Extractions : A sequential extraction procedure (SEP) also known as sequential extraction scheme (SES) can be used to determine above mentioned binding fractions of metals in the sediment. In this process, given sediment sample is subjected to a series of increasingly strong , phase specific reagents under controlled condition which extract our metals from the particular physic-chemical phase of interest(Bird et al , 2005). Depending upon target fractions, a wide variety of chemical extractants can be used (see fig.2.1) and thus in the literature various sequential extraction schemes are available which differ in the use of extractant, target phase and the order of attack to separate particular form of metals. The majority of the schemes are variants of a scheme proposed by Tessier et al (1979). Many researchers have reported difficulties in comparing the results of SES due to their wide variation in the use of chemicals and target phase. Thus, in an effort to harmonize the different methodologies and to make the comparison of results easier , Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) proposed a three step extraction procedure along with a reference sediment material to certify the protocol (Mossop and Davidson , 2003). 2.9 Advantages and problems of sequential extractions : The application of sequential extraction techniques , though time consuming provide valuable information about the origin , mode of occurrence, biological and physic-chemical availability , mobilisation and transport of metals within the sedimentary matrices(Tokalioglu et al , 2000).However, since their initial development, sequential extraction schemes have been criticized for the lack of selectivity of reagents, issues of re adsorption and redistribution of metals solubilised during extraction and changes in speciation due to sample pre- treatment and its general methodology ( Gleyzes et al , 2002). In the sequential extraction scheme, the reagents are expected to attack only the target phase without solubilising the other phases. However, it has been found that the reagents are not selective and may affect other phases also. Thus the sequential extractions are termed as operationally defined fractionation techniques. This lack of selectivity may cause re-adsoprtion and re distribution of metals among the target phases. Moreover, incomplete dissolution of some phases and changes in pH may also lead toward re adsorption and redistribution problems (Gleyzes et al, 2002). Various researchers have reported the problem of re adsorption and redistribution for many sequential extractions for each phase. Despite these limitations sequential extractions are widely accepted for metal fractionation in sediment samples to assess the mobility and bioavailability of metals . 2.10 Single Extractions : To reduce lengthy procedures and thus making sequential extractions a part of routine analysis, various alternatives(e.g. microwave heating and ultrasonic shaking) to conventional extraction procedures have been employed (Albores et al , 2000). One of the alternatives to reduce the lengthy and laborious sequential process is to use single extractions. In single extractions the same reagents and operating conditions as the sequential extractions are applied to different sub- sample (Albores et al ,2000) and, except for first step , the metal concentrations in each individual step can be obtained by subtracting the results obtained in two successive steps(Filgueiras et al , 2002). Initially this technique was suggested by Tack et al (1996) in which first three steps mentioned in Tessiers Scheme were extracted simultaneously while, for organic matter bound metals, it was suggested that the sample should be extracted first for reducing metals and should then be re treated with hydrogen p eroxide step to remove organic matter and thus release metals bound to this phase. 2.11 Bioassays : A useful monitoring tool Bioassays measure changes in physiology and behaviour of living organisms resulting from stress induced by biological or chemical toxic compounds which can cause disruption of e.g. metabolism. Thus, bioassays help to establish cause / effect relationship between the concentrations of pollutants and consequent environmental damage (Girrotti et al , 2008). Historically fish and macro invertabrates bioassays are the first in the series of toxicity bioassays involving animals. As these bioassays were found useful in assessing the acute toxicity of chemicals and effluents and often predicted their effects of aquatic biota and habitat, they have been extensively used in the screening of chemicals and regulatory compliance monitoring (Blaise et al , 1998). However , these conventional bioassays require longer test duration along with additional time(e.g. acclimatisation) for preparations of the test (Ribo and Kaiser , 1987). Moreover toxicity was found a trophic level property and thus it was realized that protection of aquatic resources could not be ensured by conducting bioassays solely at macro organism level (Rand et al , 1995). Therefore an urgent requirement of cost effective , multi trophic and faster bioassays was strongly felt which led to development of micro scale testing procedures involving bacteria , protozoa , micro algae and micro invertabrate (Blaise et al , 1998). Distinct advantages of microbial testing procedures include :1) ease of handling ,2 ) short testing time , 2) reproducibility of results (Mowat et al , 2001) and 4) cost effectiveness (Wadhia and Thompson , 2007). 2.12 Sediment Toxicity Tests : As Van Beelen (2003) stated, toxicity is not a substance property only , but it is the c

The Characters, Setting, and Symbols of Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Co

     Ã‚  Ã‚   Beyond the shield of civilization and into the depths of a primitive, untamed frontier lies the true face of the human soul. It is in the midst of this savagery and unrelenting danger that mankind confronts the brooding nature of his inner self.   Joseph Conrad’s novel, Heart of Darkness, is the story of one man's insight into life as he embarks on a voyage to the edges of the world. Here, he meets the bitter, yet enlightening forces that eventually shape his outlook on life and his own individuality. Conrad’s portrayal of the characters, setting, and symbols, allow the reader to reflect on the true nature of man. The two main characters in Heart of Darkness, Marlow and Kurtz are used to show the true nature of man, that is, the capacity for good and evil within humanity. The central character is a thirty two year old sailor, Charlie Marlow. Marlow is the primary narrator in the novel, therefore his thought’s, opinions, experiences and revelations, shape the entire novels themes and the value system put forward. Marlow illustrates how forces of light and darkness serve to weave the human soul together; thus, essentially how good and evil are reflected in an individual. This is particularly important regarding the construction of Marlow, who is essentially a biased narrator, and a product of his European upbringing. An example is his inability to deal with the dying natives at the â€Å"grove of death†, offering a native a biscuit as an apparent kind gesture. Yet this is only due to him not being confronted with situations like this previously where his own values, and the whole p remise behind colonialism, the exploitation is revealed. The patriarchial views of women he displays also outline the background of Marlow and the a... ...o man can live on the island without becoming a brutal savage. Inside his heart lies the raw evil of untamed lifestyle" (Heart of Darkness: A systematic evaluation).    Works Cited "The Congo" Created December 07, 1995. Web. 23 February 2007. Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. New York: Penguin, 1999. Print. "The Fear" Created December 07, 1995. Web. 9 February 2007. "Heart of Darkness: A systematic evaluation of the darkness inherent in men's souls" "The Perfect Native" Created December 07, 1995. Web. 12 February 2007. "The Setting" Created December 07, 1995. Web. 12 February 2007.    Works Consulted Goonetilleke, D.C.R.A. "Heart of Darkness: Overview." Literature Resources from Gale. Gale, 1994. Web. 18 February 2007. Loe, Thomas. "Heart of Darkness: Overview." Literature Resources from Gale. Gale, 1991. Web. 12 February 2007.

Freedom Rides

Prior to the freedom rides indigenous people were mistreated and weren’t considered to be first class citizens of Australia. However, when people became aware of the mistreatment, they started to protest in many places in New South Wales, this was known as the freedom rides. This movement was led by Charles Perkins, who was one of the first indigenous people to attend university. The mistreatment of indigenous people started when the European’s took over Australia, and escalated over time. They were considered to be second class citizens. By the time of federation, in 1901, aboriginal people were not included in the constitution or the census and were excluded from society which was known as protectionism. The white Australians believed that they were helping the Aborigines by using the protection policies. But in reality these policies isolated them from their families, traditional land and removed them from their natural heritage and culture. The Aborigines were taught to live like the white Australians so the could assimilate into the white society and were often trained to be slaves for White People. Charles Perkins was an aborigine who like many was taken from his family and land. He was however treated well compared to what most Indigenous Australians faced when taken under the protection policies. In 1965, over thirty Sydney University students, led by Charles Perkins and Gary Williams, represented Student Action For Aborigines (SAFA) and travelled in a bus all over north and west of New South Wales. This was called the Freedom Ride, and the students became well known as the ‘Freedom Riders’. The aim of the freedom riders was to highlight the racism portrayed in the ‘White Australia Policy’ which was brought into effect during Federation by Sir Edmund Barton. The policy meant that the Aborigines were banned, or in some cases separated from whites, in shops, cinemas, hotels and clubs and public swimming pools. The freedom riders were verbally and physically abused in most towns they visited during protest. The freedom rides were influenced by the racism which was taking place in the US, where there was also segregation between the white and black community. This was an international break through. Charles Perkins was also a soccer star which gave him the opportunity to travel quiet often. On many occasions he witnessed racial abuse in the country towns of New South Whales, where many Aboriginals were degraded in society. Charles Perkins did not experience much racism as he was raised in the city compared to other Aboriginals who were treated harshly. After witnessing discrimination against his own race he immediately took action. The freedom rides that were taking place in the US inspired him to act in a similar manner. Charles Perkins along with his University support travelled all throughout New South Whales. Perkins observed the racism that took place in a town called Moree where Aboriginal children were to shower before entering the pool and leave at a certain time. There was a lot of violence that took place in Moree due to its racial outcasts. Charles Perkins used his stardom to get his word out there that Aboriginals should not be degraded in any way. The students were both physically and verbally abused, and so decided to protest along with many other Aboriginals. The Freedom Riders goal was finally achieved in the 1967 referndum which stated that Aboriginals would be classed as citizens of Australia and would be counted in the census votes. From the above mentioned facts it can be concluded that the freedom ride movement and charles perkins had a positive impact on raising racial awareness. The freedom rides attracted a lot of media attention at both the National and international level. It generated discussions about the indigenous people’s rights and put a lot of pressure on the Government for reform.

The role of the teacher can often be a negative one Essays

The role of the teacher can often be a negative one Essays The role of the teacher can often be a negative one Essay The role of the teacher can often be a negative one Essay Essay Topic: The assault The definition of a teacher is one who teaches or instructs; one whose business or occupation is to instruct others; an instructor; a tutor. The Tempest was written in 1611, following the discovery of the Bermudas and the colonisation of Ireland, during what is known as the Jacobean period. King James I resided over the throne. The most important themes are language and power: or to blend the two word power. The Tempest can be viewed as an allegory for power. The institution or individual that controls language: controls society. Prospero has a great control of language; his magical powers and intellect separate him from the other characters within the play. Prosperos magical powers signify his academic ascendancy and he becomes the teacher figure within the play. Prospero emerges as the most obvious teacher within The Tempest. He was a scholar in Milan and he imposes his intellectualism on his daughter. This shows the chain of transmission of knowledge. Miranda is educated and empowered by her knowledge. Miranda is under the thumb of her dictatorial father. Prospero even refers to Miranda as his foot. Prospero has educated his daughter, Miranda, the savage and deformed slave Caliban, and acts as a spiritual teacher to all the corrupt members of the shipwreck. It would be easy to cast Prospero as the omniscient, judicious, transcendent type within the play, but that would lend Prospero a positive role. Prospero is a bad teacher because he is abusive and misuses his gift, language, he is dictatorial towards Caliban. Prospero is continually mourning the loss of his dukedom, which his own brother usurped. Therefore, Prospero had political power but lost it. Prospero rarely accepts responsibility for his actions as a bad leader; he neglected his dukedom for magic, the occult, this links in with the Jacobean theory of the body politic. Prospero was an absent duke; he was presented with a choice between his dukedom and his study, and opted to lock himself in an ivory tower with his magic books. It can thus be argued that Prosperos magic was the reason he lost his dukedom and magic is exactly the means by which he regains his dukedom, so as a play it goes full circle, and Prospero disowns his magic and retakes his dukedom. Prospero teaches Ferdinand, the importance of being a good king, for the king to be a good ruler, he needs to know what its like to be a servant and thus he is forced t o carry logs, a punishment usually reserved for Caliban. Prospero is solipsistic. He enters his own private world as opposed to public one. Prospero, the usurped; ultimately becomes Calibans usurper. The fundamental hypocrisy is that if Prospero was a man of principle, he would have lived peacefully side-by-side with Caliban, but he chooses instead to dominate over Caliban as his ruler, he chooses to usurp, instead of co-operate. Furthermore, Prospero is obsessed with achieving revenge on the men that betrayed his trust, the same crime is scorns Caliban for. From a biblical perspective Prosperos obsession with revenge completely contradicts the Christian principle of forgiveness and fails the aphorism forgive and forget. Prospero is embittered by what has happened to his family and he wants to get his own back on them and achieve retribution. It can be argued that this subconscious fury is the fuel which fires his unfair treatment of Caliban. Prospero is not only a bad teacher, but a bad person. The colonial disposition of the language is a corruption. Prospero and Miranda have a very Eurocentric view of the world. Calibans original language is stigmatised as babble and gabble. Caliban is made to feel inferior by Miranda; hes called ugly, on a physical and mental level. Prospero brings in the idea that Caliban is un-educateble. Prospero uses teaching to put across a right-wing view. This Conservative views of factory fodder. Prospero has a fascistic view of education and human nature; he thinks Caliban is innately, genetically bad. From a post-colonial perspective Caliban is analogous to Sarah. Prosperos teaching methods are very right-wing; he clearly sees no hope for an uneducateable Caliban who is viewed as innately bad and therefore cannot be reformed as a character. While preaching Christian values and using them as a basis for his actions, the deep-seated duplicity is he does not practice these elevated values; instead he takes on an ad hoc basis for elements of Christ ianity that he needs to substantiate his actions. Prospero takes a pick and mix attitude to an all or nothing doctrine/ religion. One might question the use of having a teacher who does not practice what he/she preaches, on what foundations can Prospero claim superiority over Caliban, when the civilisation and cultural values Prospero is forcing Caliban to digest do not seem to apply to Prospero and his actions. Caliban resents Prospero for colonising/liberating him, and says, You taught me language, and my profit ont/Is I know how to curse. He sees Prospero as entirely oppressive; while Prospero claims that he cared for and educated Caliban before he tried to rape Miranda. Prospero feels that Caliban is ungrateful for the blessing of civilisation and language. Language for Caliban, however, is not empowering, rather oppressive. It highlights the changes Prospero and Miranda have caused and the extent to which they have changed him from what he was. Caliban uses language as an attempt to create a separate identity from his colonisers by using it against them and cursing them; the red plague rid you/for learning me this language!. Caliban has had a false identity impose on him. The role of teacher is destructive for Caliban because Prospero attempts to homogenise Caliban to be morel like himself. Prospero is a bad teacher because he imposes his language and cultural values on Caliban. In doing so he has made the assumption that Caliban is inferior. This stresses the recurring theme of hegemony, the domination of one culture over another. He says to Prospero, Thou poisonous slave, got by the devil himself/ Upon thy wicked dam, come forth! Prospero defends his mistreatment of Caliban saying that Caliban must be punished for attempting to rape his daughter and desiring to populate the island with little Calibans. It could be argued that Caliban achieves a different type of dignity to that of Ariel (who serves willingly) by refusing, if only sporadically, to bow before Prosperos intimidation. Calibans forced servitude and his native status on the island have led many critics to interpret him as a symbol of the cultures occupied and suppressed by European colonialists, which are represented by the power of Prospero. Aime Cesaires Une Tempete Calibans attempted rape of Miranda is intolerable in any culture. However, it only questions Prosperos ability as a teacher, he clearly hadnt taught Caliban as well as hed like to believe because Caliban doesnt understand his place within the island and this shows confusion, a great theme within the play. Caliban has had no experience of society apart from the love of a mother; the much missed witch Sycorax. Perhaps another reason he raped Miranda, was for the affection of a woman, he wanted to feel loved just like he had with Sycorax. Caliban has not been nurtured by society and clearly did not know any better. From a modern perspective, Caliban is punished for conduct he could not control, as Caliban acts according to his nature, his basic nature to do as he feels. Caliban, confused his position within the islands new found hierarchy when he attempted to rape Miranda, his aims were pro-creation he wanted to populate the island with little Calibans, he was clearly not aware of the repercussions and trauma Miranda might have experienced as a result of his actions. Caliban knows not of the crime he has committed, he does not understand, so like a young child he should have been taught and made to understand why his actions were wrong. When he needs Prospero the most, Prospero fails Caliban. Prospero decides instead to disown Caliban. Caliban thus becomes a product of Prosperos incompetence. Prospero has double standards, he is able to forgive the cold actions of his brother Antonio, his brothers motives were destructive; Antonio wanted his brother and niece dead so that he could achieve power. Whereas Calibans only aim was creation, his purpose did not knowingly involve anyone being harmed. Prosperos treatment of Caliban might be more aptly equated with a thing of darkness. Translations were written in 1980. It is set in Baele Beag and is written in a naturalistic style with symbolic elements. Northern Ireland was created in 1920 to avert a civil war between the Catholics and the Protestants; it was a disastrous attempt to mend the conflict and until very recently the creation of Northern Ireland was commonly regarded as illegitimate. It was viewed as a demonstration of colonial power. Translations emerge out of the troubles. In Translations, Hugh is, a professional teacher, as is Manus. Hugh like prospero is an abusive character; this is demonstrated with the treatment of his sons: Owen is the prodigal son and Manus is his lame son. Hugh even fails to notice Manus absence at the end of Chapter III. Hugh is an absent, negligent father. Hes very much broken man, he compensates for all his personality flaws with his intelligence, and this is similar to Prospero who also has many personal flaws. Hughs character is didactic, he has sacrificed the public for the private and instead of going to war, and he chooses instead to attend to his family. Like Prospero he is a moral and spiritual teacher. There is a shift in the readers perception of Hugh. Initially he is a bad teacher, drunk and negligent. He is decaying like the hedge school he teaches in. Hugh employs Chalk and talk teaching, he is dismissive and takes an arrogant attitude towards his students. He dismisses Maire who wants to learn English and makes fun of Doalty. English has a colonial function, language of cultural oppression, analogous to the language of magic. Lost his political power because of magic, than regains whats his through magic and then renounces it. Prospero becomes a teacher through magic. Hugh as a bad teacher, stuck in the past, he rejects/ignores Daniel O Connell. Throughout almost the first half of the nineteenth century Irelands history is reflected in the life of Daniel OConnell. In Dublin he associated with the United Irishmen and shred their national sentiments. When the Emmet alarm burst on the country in 1803, he flew to arms to preserve the Constitution. He was one of the Lawyers Corps that was formed for defence of the realm against the assault of French principles. . Chooses to teach hindering classical past. Hugh doesnt have an understanding of politics. Manus on the other hand, the private for the political. HE sees Sarah nothing more than an embodiment for a tradition. HE doesnt even realise Sarah is in love with him. Look at the idea of Prospero and Hugh as teachers. There can be good teachers or bad teachers. Prospero and Hugh are both scholars and teachers. Hugh is not a very good one; he takes his son for granted like a surrogate wife. Hedge schools are anachronistic; education makes Hugh an intellectual snob. Inferiority complexes manifest themselves as superiority complexes. He also manifests his superiority complex in front of Yolland, He degenerates England. He hadnt heard of Wordsworth and is therefore ignorant of English speaking culture. HE has a parochial, narrow, small-town mentality. Hugh parochialism combines with Manus nationalism. Hugh has a bad effect on Manus, he refuses to speak English, Hugh sees English in esthetical terms its ugly, inferior. Manus, however sees language in political terms, as the language of the colonisers. Maire sees language in economic terms. She ends up looking at language in aesthetic terms nice sounds 78. So the changes in the characters arent static. On the one hand, Hugh teaches Manus well. He comes to realisation. Act 3, purveyors poles political significance and intransigent attitude. Manus as a product of his father, hes a bad father because he treats Manus like a skivvy a slave a dogs body hes not just a victim. Hes a victim of not just the British but his father like Caliban. Classical analogy. Manus lameness because father drops him when he was drunk. He weeps when Owen returns. His treatment of the two sons is unfair. To juxtapose Prospero with the primitive Caliban who is analogous to Rousseaus noble savage myth exposes. Lancey views the Irish as stupid and stigmatises them. On the other hand characters such as Yolland romanticise and idealise the Irish. Gonzalo idealises them as better than that. This is similar to Edward Saids view of the Wests perception of other cultures is Orientalism, the west, the noble savage. Either stigmatise or sentimentalise. Prospero gave Miranda the best teaching possible, whereas he failed Caliban. Miranda is an echo chamber for her father. Whereas Prospero failed Caliban.

A Great Hatred essays

A Great Hatred essays James Baldwins Notes on a Native Son tells the story of his life from childhood up to an adult. Ever since he was a young boy, Baldwin has gone through different stages of development1 just trying to get through his life troubled with racism. I believe Baldwin fully understands the hate that racism has brought him, but just hasnt found a way to rid such a great hatred from his heart. Baldwins childhood was tough. Though his father was physically there he really wasnt there. His children didnt know him as a father, but rather someone who is hating and fearing every living soul including his children. (3). Baldwins father wasnt only mad at people in general; he had an extreme hatred for white people. Even when the white school teacher, who Baldwins mother gave the highest regard, helped them for years, his father still couldnt make himself trust her. His father also pushed young Baldwin away from his white friends. He claimed, Whites would do anything to keep a Negro down (5). A year before his fathers death, Baldwin moved to New Jersey. His rough life only continued when he saw first hand that whites were very racist towards all Negros living there. He realized that one was never looked at, but was simply at the mercy of the reflexes the color of ones skin caused other people (5). On Baldwins fourth visit to a local restaurant he finally understood the great burden of the Jim Crow laws. Baldwin realized the restaurant he was attending was not one in which he was used to. Negros were not served there (5). This wasnt the only place in New Jersey that was under the Jim Crow law. No matter where he went, Baldwin says, I was always being forced to leave (5). White people were starting to get to Baldwin now. The hate in his heart was only growing stronger. C ...

Benefits of and problems with information, entertainment and Research Paper

Benefits of and problems with information, entertainment and communication technologies - Research Paper Example Print. Powell, John, Lee Gunn, Pam Lowe, Bart Sheehan, Frances Griffiths, and Aileen Clarke. "New Networked Technologies and Carers of People with Dementia: An Interview Study." Ageing and Society 30.6 (2010): 1073–1088. Cambridge University Press. Print. Price, Monroe, Susan Haas, and Drew Margolin. "New Technologies and International Broadcasting: Reflections on Adaptations and Transformations." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616.1 (2008, March): 150–172. Public Diplomacy in a Changing World. Print. Riemer, Kai, and Stefan Klein. "Is the V-form the Next Generation Organization? An Analysis of Challenges, Pitfalls and Remedies of ICT-enabled Virtual Organizations Based on Social Capital Theory." Journal of Information Technology, 23 (2008): 147–162. Print. Williams, Peter. "Using Information and Communication Technology with Special Needs Students: The Views of Frontline Professionals." Emerald Publishing Group. Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives 57.6 (2005): 539–553.

Flag Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Flag - Essay Example Jennifer de Poyen is both a writer as well as visual artist. She was a critic and journalist for the San Diego Union Tribune, writing about theater and dance. After graduating from McGill University, she studied journalism and finally graduated from Stanford University. In her book â€Å"Seeing Stars and Stripes† she criticizes the attitude of the Americans towards their national flag ever since the catastrophic incident of the 911. She explains how the American citizens treat the flag because of all the gruesome incidents that had taken place ever since. Jennifer de Poyen was triggered to paint the U.S. national flag for one of her painting assignments, but soon she realized that her interest in the flag was not academic but was more sentimental in nature. In her book â€Å"Seeing Stars and Stripes†, she recalls the days before the 911 incident when the U.S. national flag stood as a proud symbol of Liberty, Fraternity and Peace. The citizens respected and honored their flag and held it in high esteem by hoisting it on Independence Day and other important political holidays. The proud waving of flags was meant to show their love, solidarity and patriotism for America. However, Poyen states that a major reactionary shift or change in the American sentiment towards the national flag occurred ever since the catastrophe of the 911. She writes vehemently on the aftermath and states that though many people took comfort in the national flag after the 911 incident, she and many others view the flag from a different angle. According to Poyen, the fear of terrorist attacks and the helplessness to avoid such acts was brought on by the subsequent acts of the U.S. government. In particular, she makes mention of John Ashcroft’s vengefully repressive department of justice. The display of the stars and stripes evidenced a reactionary shift in sentiment of all Americans. Poyen recalls that horrendous day when thousands of innocent people lost their lives